Automobile brands abandoned by their parent company are an integral part of the story of the American automobile industry.

Even the Sky Roadster of 2008 was unable to draw enough consumer interest to sustain Saturn.

THE rise and fall of Saturn is a particularly interesting story - to a degree it mirrors the short-lived history of Ford’s Edsel.

It begins in 1982 General Motors when initiated an extensive study of the current and potential market for a small car built with the US domestic market in mind. This included styling considerations, projected trends, and the influence of Japanese and European automobile manufacturers on the American market.

The following year at a press conference about the project, then chairman Roger Smith announced plans to create a subcompact line of vehicles that would offer a direct challenge to imports.

The vehicles would be sold under the Saturn name, a reference to the rockets that had carried Americans to the Moon. True to his word, in near record time, the first Saturn prototype was readied for showing in 1984.

The project was placed on the fast track. The Saturn Corporation, also known as Saturn LLC, was established on January 7, 1985, as a GM subsidiary. Spring Hill, Tennessee, had been selected as the site for a state-of-the-art production and distribution facility. Then Joseph Sanchez died just three weeks after he was named Saturn's first president. In retrospect it was perceived to be an ill omen.

GM proved its commitment to the endeavor when ground was broken at Spring Hill and construction of a $1.9-billion manufacturing plant commenced in 1986. A few months later the Saturn logo was created and trademarked. Then in 1988, with great fanfare and extensive media coverage, the ribbon was cut for the revolutionary manufacturing facility at Spring Hill and 3,000 workers commenced to build the car of the future.

The innovative Z-body was developed entirely in-house at Saturn. Aside from the space frame design used on some Pontiacs during the 1980s it shared little with the rest of the General Motors model line. As the side panels did not carry a load, they were made of plastic polymer instead of metal. The dent and corrosion-resistant properties of the panels was incorporated into advertising campaigns.

Meanwhile GM had initiated an extensive program to establish a network of dedicated Saturn dealers and dealers that would add the new car to their line of offered General Motors products. In 1990 an extensive marketing campaign Saturn that focused on a brand-wide "no haggle" sales technique was launched to coincide with commencement of sales.

Production facilities, use of plastic body panels and visionary marketing campaigns were not only the innovative things about Saturn. The UAW (United Auto Workers) and GM initiated a series of meetings in 1983 to negotiate a labor agreement. In 1985 announcement was made that a labor accord for the Saturn operation had been completed. It included unprecedented terms including a twenty percent pay cut for workers at the Spring Hill factory in exchange for guaranteed profit-sharing and bonuses based on attainment of production and quality goals. Certain other rights pertaining to seniority, work rules, grievance procedures, were also modified.

The second cloud in the company’s bright future occurred in 1991 when an engine coolant problem necessitated the replacement of 1,836 Saturn’s. As with the Edsel, these issues tarnished the new cars reputation, made potential customers consider other available models, and created a public relations nightmare.

The Aura RX sedan was intended to achieve volume penetration. It didn’t.

This proved to be a minor setback. In early 1992 the company announced the sale of the 100,000th Saturn. Later that year Saturn was placed at the top of the list in the J.D. Power Customer Satisfaction index list. Then only a few months later the embryonic company was dealt another blow when it was announced that more than 300,000 Saturn’s were being recalled for the repair of an electrical issue.

Still Saturn reported its first profitable year in 1994. Again, much like what happened to Edsel, sales did not meet projections. As a result, there was a lay off at the Spring Hill production facility and production was curtailed. This was part of a company-wide reorganization that included the folding of Saturn into GM's Small Car Group.

But the company continued working on innovative programs and marketing campaigns to develop brand loyalty. One of the most novel of these initiatives was the Saturn Homecoming.

In the spring of 1994, the company invited 605,000 Saturn owners to Spring Hill for a celebration of the owners, the vehicles, and the people that built them. More than 38,000 people accepted the invitation. The only states not represented by owners were Wyoming, North Dakota, and Montana-the only states where Saturn had no dealers. L.B. Tseng, a Saturn dealer from Taipei, Taiwan, held a drawing among his customers and awarded 20 of them with a free trip to the homecoming, a promotion that cost him $50,000.

It was an unprecedented two-day event. There were bands, singers, magicians, and a firework display with "God Bless America" and "America the Beautiful" as background music. Blacksmiths gave demonstrations. Tattoo artists were available to provide an unforgettable souvenir. Angie Weaver and Curt Natter, two young Saturn dealership employees from Pennsylvania chose the occasion to get married before a chaplain of the United Auto Workers union. Saturn President Richard LeFauve said, “This is the first owner recall in the history of the auto industry."

The Saturn, like the Edsel, should have been a success. The S-Series produced until replacement by the Ion line in 2003 won numerous awards. Powered by a 1.9-liter four-cylinder single cam or dual cam engine paired with five-speed automatic or four-speed manual transmissions, the cars developed a cult like following. MotorWeek, Automobile Magazine, J.D. Power & Associates, and Motor Trend praised the car in feature articles. More than 2 million S-Series were produced.

Still, by 2000 Saturn had lost its identity. The midsize L-Series in sedan and station wagon body styles was produced at a GM plant in Delaware. They were based on the Opel Vectra.

In a valiant attempt to keep the brand alive, General Motors expanded the Saturn line. The Vue was introduced as a crossover in 2002. In 2005 the Relay minivan debuted. Two years later the stunning Sky roadster was offered.

But GM was in a dire financial condition. The company was losing billions of dollars and facing bankruptcy. When GM chairman Rick Wagoner testified before a Congressional banking committee, he explained that the company was in the process of streamlining by concentrating on its four core brands: Cadillac, Buick, GMC, and Chevrolet.

Saturn was doomed. Following GM’s bankruptcy and restructuring in 2009, the company attempted to sell Saturn. The only interested party was race car driver Roger Penske. The negotiations were stillborn when a deal to have Nissan-Renault supply cars to Saturn collapsed. With little ceremony GM quietly halted production of Saturn on October 1, 2009, and officially discontinued the line on October 31, 2010.

But just as with other orphans Saturn lives on. It still retains a staunch loyalty from owners. And a new generation of enthusiasts, many of whom were not yet born when the car debuted, have discovered the durable and sporty Saturn coupes. They have spawned a cottage industry of aftermarket and used parts.

Written by Jim Hinckley of jimhinckleysamerica.com

This engineer, businessman, and the holder of 186 patents was the electric starter, fast-drying car paint, the world’s first cruise missile and an engine that became known as the copper-cooled calamity … plus so much more.

HIS contributions to the development of automotive technology, to education and even to medicine transformed the world.

He eliminated the need for a hand crank to start a car. He almost sank Chevrolet. He was a commonsense philosopher that espoused the benefits and value of failure - “99 percent of success is built on failure.” His was a life well lived.

Charles Franklin Kettering was born on August 29, 1876, in Loudonville, Ohio. Plagued with poor eyesight, he was a voracious reader even though this often led to blinding headaches.

Surprisingly, even though he was well read he was only a mediocre student. Still, after graduation he accepted a teaching position at Bunker Hill School. He challenged and engaged students, encouraged them to evening scientific lectures on electricity, heat, magnetism, and gravity, and was immensely popular.

His quest for learning led him to resign from teaching and register for classes at the College of Wooster, and then Ohio State University. Resultant of his eye problems that led to almost crippling migraine headaches, he abandoned higher learning and took a job as foreman of a telephone line crew. He was a quick learner and enjoyed experimenting on his own time.

Fascinated by electricity, he again registered for classes at Ohio State University after an optometrist was able to rectify some of his vision problems. He graduated in 1904 with an electrical engineering degree and was hired directly out of school to head the research laboratory at National Cash Register.

In this position he developed a revolutionary credit approval system that would later be adapted by Diners Club, one of the first credit card companies, in 1950. In 1906 he developed a small electric motor and created the first electric cash register. During his five years of employment at NCR, from 1904 to 1909, he secured 23 patents for the company. He attributed his success to a good amount of luck but often quipped, “I notice that the harder I work, the luckier I get.”

In 1907, his NCR colleague Edward A. Deeds, Kettering, and other NCR engineers, including Harold E. Talbott, established the “Barn Gang.” Together they would work nights and weekends in Deeds's barn to develop products or ideas to enhance everyday products. In 1909, Charles F. Kettering and Edward Deeds left NCR and established a company of their own, the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company, known today as Delco, in Dayton, Ohio. Despite developing an array of products and acquiring patents, the company was only moderately successful. It was a tragic accident that propelled Kettering and Delco to success.

Many injuries and even deaths had occurred resultant of the hand crank used to start automobiles. Byron Carter, a prolific inventor from Jackson, Michigan that had developed bicycles and various automotive technologies, as well as the friction drive Cartercar, stopped to assist a motorist on Belle Isle near Detroit. While cranking the vehicle he was severely injured and died several days later. Henry M. Leland, an automotive engineer that had been involved with Cadillac from its inception, a friend of Carter’s, became determined to develop an electric self-starting device for automobiles. When he and his team of engineers failed, they turned to Kettering and Delco. An operational model was delivered to Leland in February 1911.

It exceeded all expectations. In addition to the electric starter the system included key operated ignition spark and as a source of current for the lighting. Leland ordered 12,000 units and the 1912 Cadillac became the first production vehicle with a modern starting and electrical system.

In 1914, Kettering became a founding partner in a company that manufactured motorcycle sidecars. The same year he launched a company to mass produce generating systems for rural farm lighting applications. This included experimentation with the use of solar power as a source of electrical generation. He also was a founding partner in the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company.

The following year he accepted a contract from the United States Army to design an unmanned "flying bomb" which could hit a target at a range 64 kilometres. Formally called the Kettering Aerial Torpedo it was jokingly called the Kettering Bug. It was built by the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company with Orville Wright acting as an aeronautical consultant and Elmer Ambrose Sperry as assistant engineer for the design of the control and guidance system.

The innovate aircraft was powered by a two-stroke V4 40-horsepower DePalma engine mass-produced by the Ford Motor Company at a cost of $40 each. The fuselage was constructed of wood laminates and papier-mâché, and the wings were made of cardboard. The cost per unit was $400.

It was launched using a dolly-and-track system like the method used by the Wright Brothers when they made their first powered flights in 1903. It could fly at a speed of 80kmh. A small onboard gyroscope was used to guide the aircraft to its destination. The control system also used a pneumatic/vacuum system, an electric system, and an aneroid barometer/altimeter. An intricate mechanical system was devised that would track the aircraft's distance flown. Before takeoff, technicians determined the distance to be traveled relative to the air, considering wind speed and direction along the flight path, and then calculated the total number of engine revolutions needed for the Bug to reach its destination. When a total revolution counter reached this value, a cam dropped down which shut off the engine and retracted the bolts attaching the wings, which fell off. This began the ballistic trajectory into the target which ended with an impact detonation of the 82 kg payload.

In 1916 Kettering negotiated the sale of Delco to United Motors Corporation, an automotive parts and accessories company that was acquired by General Motors in 1918. Then in 1919 he accepted a position as head of the new General Motors Research Corporation in Dayton, Ohio. He would continue working for this GM division for 27 years during which he acquired 186 patents.

Kettering was also the man behind Duco, the paint that revolutionised automobile painting. Prior to Duco many automobile manufacturers hand painted cars. Still regardless of system used the drying process required days. Duco developed with Du Pont cut that time to hours.

Not all his projects were successful. “It doesn’t matter if you try and try and try again and fail. It does matter if you try and fail and fail to try again.”

In 1919 his first assignment for General Motors was to develop two air cooled engines: a four cylinder for Chevrolet and a six cylinder for Oakland that could also be used in Oldsmobile. The Oakland/Oldsmobile project was shelved, but the Chevy air cooled engine made it into production. It was an abject failure as the car tended to overheat when operating in conditions of high heat and humidity. It burned valves and bearings, and lost compression when hot.

Only 759 of these cars were built. Except for two cars, all were recalled from dealers or bought back from buyers. It was the first automotive recall in history, and it almost caused the demise of the Chevy division.

Chevy sales had been strong since 1916 but there was no growth. An attempt to introduce a V8 engine as a Model D in 1917 proved a costly failure. During the post WWI economic recession, the Chevy division hemorrhaged cash. The air-cooled engine project exacerbated a critical situation. Only the last-minute intervention of Alfred P. Sloan prevented the Chevrolet division from being culled.

As an interesting side note, trying to resolve the problematic detonation issue of the air-cooled engine led Kettering to begin experiments with fuel. In 1921, working with General Motors engineer Thomas Midgley Jr., Kettering created a new additive which worked to reduce the “knocking” in car engines. That additive was tetraethyl lead. And that resulted in the development of leaded gasoline.

Another dubious invention that at the time was heralded as a world changing discovery was Freon gas for use as a refrigerant. Kettering also played a key role in the development of automotive safety glass, a lightweight diesel engine for application in trucks, an electric auto theft prevention system, and diesel-electrical dynamo engines for locomotives. But Kettering’s interests were not limited to cars, trucks, airplanes, and trains.

His launched research into magnetism and its use in medical imaging devices and designed an incubator for premature infants that he patented. He created a formula for synthetic aviation fuel and pioneered the mechanism for retractable aircraft landing gear. He perfected the spark plug and devised a process for extraction of bromine from sea water. He is credited with the creation of the first practical two-filament headlamp. And he established the Charles F. Kettering Foundation for medical research, partnered with Alfred Sloan to establish the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, and funded establishment of the Charles F. Kettering Memorial Hospital, as well as Kettering University.

Charles Kettering is an example of a life well lived. He is an inspiration. And in the modern era, he is largely a forgotten pioneer.

Written by Jim Hinckley of jimhinckleysamerica.com